Visit your local store

It looks like you are visiting from another country. Would you like to switch to your local store for a better experience?

Choose your region

North America
Europe
Asia

 

 

Macrophages: Key immune cells

What are macrophages?

Macrophages are specialized white blood cells that regulate the immune system and act as phagocytes. serving as the first line of defense, identifying and engulfing harmful microorganisms, dead cells, and foreign particles through a process known as phagocytosis.1 

Human macrophage cell culture in phase contrastHuman macrophage cell culture in phase contrast

What do macrophages do?

 

Macrophages are essential for maintaining homeostasis, promoting wound healing, and regulating immune reactions, with their functions tailored to the specific needs of different tissues. They act as sentinels, sensing and responding to changes in the microenvironment to preserve tissue integrity and balance.2,3

Key functions 

 

  •  Phagocytosis and pathogen clearance: These phagocytic cells engulf and digest pathogens, dead cells, and foreign particles. They utilize pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), such as toll-like receptors and scavenger receptors, to identify and internalize these threats through phagocytosis.4
  • Immune response initiation: As first responders, they secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines that recruit other immune cells, such as neutrophils and dendritic cells, to the site of infection. This process helps orchestrate a coordinated immune response.5
  • Antigen presentation: They process and present antigens to T cells via major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules, bridging the innate and adaptive branches of the immune system. This activation of T cells is crucial for a robust immune response.6
  • Tissue homeostasis and repair: They play a vital role in tissue development, repair, and maintenance. They also clear cellular debris and promote wound healing, which is essential for tissue regeneration.7,8
  • Regulation of inflammation: These cells can exhibit both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory properties, depending on their activation state. This adaptability allows them to regulate immune responses and prevent excessive inflammation that can lead to tissue damage.9 
  • Metabolic functions: They are involved in various metabolic processes, including iron homeostasis and regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These functions are crucial for maintaining cellular health and preventing disease.10
  • Disease modulation: They are implicated in various diseases, including cancer, metabolic disorders, and autoimmune conditions. Their ability to influence the tumor microenvironment makes them potential targets for therapeutic interventions.10

 

 

What are the different types of macrophages?

Macrophages exhibit phenotypic diversity based on their origin and activation state.

Tissue-resident macrophages

These cells are specialized cell populations that reside in different tissues and organs, including the following:

  • Liver
  • Brain
  • Placenta
  • Lung
  • Adipose tissue
An overview of tissue-resident macrophages shwoing specialized cell populations that reside in different tissues and organs, including liver, brain, placenta, lung and adipose tissue.An overview of tissue-resident macrophages shwoing specialized cell populations that reside in different tissues and organs, including liver, brain, placenta, lung and adipose tissue.

Monocyte-derived macrophages

Derived from monocytes, these cells are part of the mononuclear phagocyte system and are distributed throughout the body. During infection or inflammation, monocyte-derived macrophages are recruited from the bloodstream to the inflamed site and differentiate into different subtypes depending on the local environment.16

 

  • M1 Macrophages: Pro-inflammatory phagocytic cells involved in pathogen clearance and anti-tumor responses.17
  • M2 Macrophages: Anti-inflammatory cells, promoting tissue repair and regeneration.17
  • Regulatory macrophages (Mregs): Specialized suppressors that play a crucial role in modulating immune responses and promoting tolerance.18

Macrophage activation and polarization

Macrophage activation is influenced by a variety of factors, including cytokines, microbial products, environmental conditions, and signaling pathways. Upon activation, macrophages can polarize into classically activated (M1) or alternatively activated (M2) phenotypes, each with unique roles in inflammation and tissue repair.

The differences of polarized and activated macrophages.The differences of polarized and activated macrophages.

Note: Non-activated macrophages can still function, but their activation significantly improves their performance.

 

What factors influence macrophage activation?

It is influenced by various factors, including cytokines, microbial products, environmental conditions, and signaling pathways.10,19,20

 

Here are the key factors:

 

  1. Cytokines and chemokines
  2. Pro-inflammatory M1 activation
  3. Anti-inflammatory M2 activation
  4. Environmental conditions (pH Levels, hypoxia)
  5. Signaling pathways
  6. Metabolic pathways
  7. Other modulators (hormones, neurotransmitters, calcium signaling)

 

Macrophages in disease

 

These cells play multifaceted roles in disease, contributing to both protective immune responses and pathological processes: 

 

  • Cancer: They can promote or suppress tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis depending on their activation state.21 M1 subtypes eliminate tumor cells through phagocytosis and cytokine release, whereas M2 subtypes promote angiogenesis and immune evasion by secreting growth factors and suppressing anti-tumor immune responses.22–24
  • Chronic inflammation: They perpetuate chronic inflammation by secreting cytokines, chemokines, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), exacerbating tissue damage and promoting angiogenesis.3,25
  • Autoimmune diseases: Dysregulated macrophage activity contributes to conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus.17,26
  • Infections: Macrophages use pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to detect pathogens and produce cytokines to recruit other immune cells. Although they can control viral replication and modulate inflammation, some pathogens evade digestion, leading to chronic infections.17
  • Neurodegenerative diseases: Macrophages play a dual role in neurodegenerative diseases. They help clear pathological protein aggregates through phagocytosis; however, excessive uptake can impair their function, leading to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration.27,28
  • Metabolic disorders: Adipose tissue induces M1 polarization, and M1 subtypes release pro-inflammatory factors (such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β) that promote further M1 infiltration and induce insulin resistance.21,29
Overview of macrophages involved in the neurodegenerative diseases Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, and in metabolic disorders such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and obesity. Overview of macrophages involved in the neurodegenerative diseases Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, and in metabolic disorders such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and obesity.

Research and applications

Macrophages represent a frontier in biomedical research owing to their versatility. Although they serve as our body’s first line of defense against pathogens, their ability to promote both tissue homeostasis and disease pathology makes them an attractive therapeutic target. In addition, their plasticity and tissue-specific functions offer opportunities for targeted therapeutic interventions. Scientists are exploring macrophage-based cell therapies for cancer immunotherapy, tissue regeneration, and inflammatory disease treatment.30

 

 

FAQs about macrophages

 

1. How do tissue-resident macrophages differ from monocyte-derived macrophages? Tissue-resident macrophages31–34
  • Originate from embryonic progenitors, including yolk sac-derived macrophages and fetal monocytes
  • Seed tissues during early development and persist into adulthood through self-renewal
  • Are long-lived cells that maintain stable populations under steady-state conditions
  • Exhibit functional heterogeneity due to tissue-specific microenvironments
  • Play critical roles in tissue development, homeostasis, and immune surveillance

Monocyte-derived macrophages31,33,35
  • Arise from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, which produce circulating monocytes
  • Migrate into tissues during inflammation or tissue repair and differentiate into macrophages
  • Are typically short-lived and rely on continuous replenishment from circulating monocytes
  • Can expand rapidly during inflammatory responses or tissue damage
  • Primarily involved in inflammatory responses, pathogen clearance, and tissue repair

While monocyte-derived macrophages may eventually resemble tissue-resident macrophages in phenotype and function, they remain distinct in origin.31–34 The development and maintenance of these two macrophage populations are influenced by different factors, contributing to their unique roles in tissue homeostasis and immune responses.31–34 7
2. What are the key roles of macrophages in the immune system? They are involved in various processes of innate and adaptive immunity, including antigen presentation, phagocytosis, cytokine production, tissue repair, and lymphangiogenesis.1,36,37
3. How do macrophages differ from other immune cells? These cells are professional phagocytes that primarily function in innate immunity, maintaining inflammatory responses in tissues and clearing pathogens and dead cells.38,39 Unlike dendritic cells (DCs), which migrate to lymph nodes to present antigens, macrophages generally operate locally. They express specific markers such as CD14, CD163, C5R1, and FcγR1A, distinguishing them from other immune cells.38,39
4. What are the consequences of macrophage dysfunction? Macrophage dysfunction is implicated in chronic inflammation and poor wound healing. This dysfunction can undermine the efficacy of both innate and adaptive immune systems, potentially leading to age-associated immune decline.40,41 Macrophage dysfunction can also lead to failed resolution of inflammation and excessive scarring.42
5. How do macrophages interact with other immune cells? Macrophages communicate with other immune cells by secreting cytokines and chemokines, which influence the behavior and activation of nearby immune cells.43,44 This cytokine/chemokine signaling allows them to orchestrate immune responses and inflammation. For example, they can stimulate T cell responses by presenting antigens and providing co-stimulatory signals.43,44
6. What are the differences between M1 and M2 macrophages? M1 subtypes, also known as classically activated macrophages, are pro-inflammatory and play a crucial role in host defense against pathogens. They produce high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and ROS, exhibiting a cytotoxic phenotype.45,46 In contrast, M2 subtypes, also referred to as alternatively activated macrophages, are anti-inflammatory and participate in wound repair, angiogenesis, and tissue remodeling.45,46
7. How do macrophages contribute to chronic inflammation? These cells contribute to chronic inflammation by secreting inflammatory cytokines and chemokines and activating transcription factors. This process is involved in the pathogenesis of conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.25
8. How can macrophages be targeted for drug delivery? Nanocarriers and microcarriers are effective tools for targeting macrophages.47 These carriers can cross membrane barriers and release drugs at infection sites. Specific receptors on the cells can be targeted to improve drug delivery efficiency. For instance, muramyl tripeptide conjugation to nanoparticles can improve their loading into macrophages.48
9. How do macrophages influence the adaptive immune response? Macrophages serve as important antigen-presenting cells that can activate naive T lymphocytes, forming a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity.49 They acquire and present antigens to T cells, initiating the adaptive immune response that is essential for the clearance of pathogens.
10. What are the hallmark properties of healthy macrophages? Healthy macrophages possess three hallmark properties that are crucial for their effector and sentinel functions in the immune system.

 

  • Response specificity: They can recognize and respond to specific pathogens or threats, allowing them to mount appropriate immune responses.4
  • Context dependence: They adapt their functions based on the microenvironmental cues they receive in different tissues. This property enables them to exhibit unique features and orchestrate tissue-specific responses.50
  • Stimulus memory: They can retain information about previous stimuli, which influences their future responses.
11. What role do macrophages play in tumor progression? Macrophages infiltrating tumor tissues are known as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). These specialized immune cells play crucial roles in tumor growth, angiogenesis, immune regulation, metastasis, and chemoresistance.51

 

Although many TAMs exhibit an M2 phenotype that promotes tumor growth, the M1 subtype of TAMs serves as a critical mechanism for tumor elimination.51 Repolarizing M2 TAMs to the M1 phenotype may also represent a novel and effective anti-cancer strategy.51
12. How do macrophages interact with the vascular system? Macrophages interact with the vascular system through various mechanisms, including cytokine production, receptor engagement, and gap junction communication.52 They play a crucial role in regulating vascular inflammation, blood-brain barrier integrity, and tissue homeostasis.

 

References

Expand
  1. Hirayama, D., Iida, T., & Nakase, H. (2017). The phagocytic function of macrophage-enforcing innate immunity and tissue homeostasis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(1), 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19010092
  2. Mosser, D. M., Hamidzadeh, K., & Goncalves, R. (2021). Macrophages and the maintenance of homeostasis. Cellular & Molecular Immunology, 18(3), 579–587. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41423-020-00541-3
  3. Wynn, T. A., Chawla, A., & Pollard, J. W. (2013). Macrophage biology in development, homeostasis and disease. Nature, 496(7446), 445–455. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12034
  4. Sheu, K. M., & Hoffmann, A. (2022). Functional hallmarks of healthy macrophage responses: their regulatory basis and disease relevance. Annual Review of Immunology, 40(1), 295–321. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-immunol-101320-031555
  5. Nobs, S. P., & Kopf, M. (2021). Tissue‑resident macrophages: guardians of organ homeostasis. Trends in Immunology, 42(6), 495–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2021.04.007
  6. Arango Duque, G., & Descoteaux, A. (2014). Macrophage cytokines: involvement in immunity and infectious diseases. Frontiers in Immunology, 5, 491. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00491
  7. Park, M. D., Silvin, A., Ginhoux, F., & Merad, M. (2022). Macrophages in health and disease. Cell, 185(23), 4259–4279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.10.007
  8. Wculek, S. K., Dunphy, G., Heras‑Murillo, I., Mastrangelo, A., & Sancho, D. (2022). Metabolism of tissue macrophages in homeostasis and pathology. Cellular & Molecular Immunology, 19(3), 384–408. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41423-021-00791-9
  9. Zhang, C., Yang, M., & Ericsson, A. C. (2021). Function of macrophages in disease: current understanding on molecular mechanisms. Frontiers in Immunology, 12, 620510. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.620510
  10. Chen, S., Saeed, A. F. U. H., Liu, Q., et al. (2023). Macrophages in immunoregulation and therapeutics. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, 8(1), 207. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-023-01452-1
  11. Heymann, F., & Tacke, F. (2016). Immunology in the liver — from homeostasis to disease. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 13(2), 88–110. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrgastro.2015.200
  12. Hu, X., Leak, R. K., Shi, Y., et al. (2015). Microglial and macrophage polarization—new prospects for brain repair. Nature Reviews Neurology, 11(1), 56–64. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2014.207
  13. Reyes, L., & Golos, T. G. (2018). Hofbauer cells: their role in healthy and complicated pregnancy. Frontiers in Immunology, 9, 2628. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.02628
  14. Silva, H. M., Báfica, A., Rodrigues‑Luiz, G. F., et al. (2019). Vasculature‑associated fat macrophages readily adapt to inflammatory and metabolic challenges. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 216(4), 786–806. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20181049
  15. Pan, D., Li, G., Jiang, C., Hu, J., & Hu, X. (2023). Regulatory mechanisms of macrophage polarization in adipose tissue. Frontiers in Immunology, 14, 1149366. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1149366
  16. Hume, D. A., Irvine, K. M., & Pridans, C. (2019). The mononuclear phagocyte system: the relationship between monocytes and macrophages. Trends in Immunology, 40(2), 98–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2018.11.007
  17. Lendeckel, U., Venz, S., & Wolke, C. (2022). Macrophages: shapes and functions. ChemTexts, 8(2), 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40828-022-00163-4
  18. Hutchinson, J. A., Riquelme, P., Geissler, E. K., & Fändrich, F. (2010). Human regulatory macrophages. In C. M. Cuturi & I. Anegon (Eds.), Suppression and Regulation of Immune Responses (Vol. 677, pp. 181–192). Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60761-869-0_13
  19. Murray, P. J., Allen, J. E., Biswas, S. K., et al. (2014). Macrophage activation and polarization: nomenclature and experimental guidelines. Immunity, 41(1), 14–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2014.06.008
  20. Orecchioni, M., Ghosheh, Y., Pramod, A. B., & Ley, K. (2019). Macrophage polarization: different gene signatures in M1(LPS⁺) vs. classically and M2(LPS⁻) vs. alternatively activated macrophages. Frontiers in Immunology, 10, 1084. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01084
  21. Guan, F., Wang, R., Yi, Z., et al. (2025). Tissue macrophages: origin, heterogeneity, biological functions, diseases and therapeutic targets. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, 10(1), 93. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-025-02124-y
  22. Qian, B. Z., & Pollard, J. W. (2010). Macrophage diversity enhances tumor progression and metastasis. Cell, 141(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2010.03.014
  23. Xu, Y., Wang, X., Liu, L., Wang, J., Wu, J., & Sun, C. (2022). Role of macrophages in tumor progression and therapy (Review). International Journal of Oncology, 60(5), 57. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2022.5347
  24. Zhou, L., Zhao, T., Zhang, R., Chen, C., & Li, J. (2024). New insights into the role of macrophages in cancer immunotherapy. Frontiers in Immunology, 15, 1381225. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1381225
  25. Lee, J. W., Chun, W., Lee, H. J., et al. (2021). The role of macrophages in the development of acute and chronic inflammatory lung diseases. Cells, 10(4), 897. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10040897
  26. Weyand, C. M., & Goronzy, J. J. (2021). The immunology of rheumatoid arthritis. Nature Immunology, 22(1), 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-020-00816-x
  27. Gao, C., Jiang, J., Tan, Y., & Chen, S. (2023). Microglia in neurodegenerative diseases: mechanism and potential therapeutic targets. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, 8(1), 359. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-023-01588-0
  28. Silvin, A., Qian, J., & Ginhoux, F. (2023). Brain macrophage development, diversity and dysregulation in health and disease. Cellular & Molecular Immunology, 20(11), 1277–1289. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41423-023-01053-6
  29. Caratti, G., Stifel, U., Caratti, B., et al. (2023). Glucocorticoid activation of anti‑inflammatory macrophages protects against insulin resistance. Nature Communications, 14(1), 2271. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37831-z
  30. Na, Y. R., Kim, S. W., & Seok, S. H. (2023). A new era of macrophage-based cell therapy. Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 55(9), 1945–1954. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-023-01068-z
  31. Italiani, P., & Boraschi, D. (2014). From monocytes to M1/M2 macrophages: phenotypical vs. functional differentiation. Frontiers in Immunology, 5, 514. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00514
  32. Wu, Y., & Hirschi, K. K. (2021). Tissue‑resident macrophage development and function. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 8, 617879. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2020.617879
  33. Epelman, S., Lavine, K. J., & Randolph, G. J. (2014). Origin and functions of tissue macrophages. Immunity, 41(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2014.06.013
  34. Hoeffel, G., & Ginhoux, F. (2018). Fetal monocytes and the origins of tissue‑resident macrophages. Cellular Immunology, 330, 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellimm.2018.01.001
  35. Sanin, D. E., Ge, Y., Marinković, E., et al. (2022). A common framework of monocyte‑derived macrophage activation. Science Immunology, 7(70), eabl7482. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciimmunol.abl7482
  36. Yadav, S., Priya, A., Borade, D. R., & Agrawal‑Rajput, R. (2023). Macrophage subsets and their role: co‑relation with colony‑stimulating factor‑1 receptor and clinical relevance. Immunological Research, 71(2), 130–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12026-022-09330-8
  37. Fu, Y. L., & Harrison, R. E. (2021). Microbial phagocytic receptors and their potential involvement in cytokine induction in macrophages. Frontiers in Immunology, 12, 662063. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.662063
  38. Lee, M., Du, H., Winer, D. A., Clemente‑Casares, X., & Tsai, S. (2022). Mechanosensing in macrophages and dendritic cells in steady‑state and disease. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 10, 1044729. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2022.1044729
  39. Lehtonen, A., Ahlfors, H., Veckman, V., Miettinen, M., Lahesmaa, R., & Julkunen, I. (2007). Gene expression profiling during differentiation of human monocytes to macrophages or dendritic cells. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 82(3), 710–720. https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.0307194
  40. Dunster, J. L. (2016). The macrophage and its role in inflammation and tissue repair: mathematical and systems biology approaches. WIREs Mechanisms of Disease, 8(1), 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsbm.1320
  41. Stout, R. D., & Suttles, J. (2005). Immunosenescence and macrophage functional plasticity: dysregulation of macrophage function by age‑associated microenvironmental changes. Immunological Reviews, 205(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0105-2896.2005.00260.x
  42. Oishi, Y., & Manabe, I. (2018). Macrophages in inflammation, repair and regeneration. International Immunology, 30(11), 511–528. https://doi.org/10.1093/intimm/dxy054
  43. Shomali, N., Mahmoudi, J., Mahmoodpoor, A., et al. (2021). Harmful effects of high amounts of glucose on the immune system: An updated review. Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry, 68(2), 404–410. https://doi.org/10.1002/bab.1938
  44. Shihab, I., Khalil, B. A., Elemam, N. M., et al. (2020). Understanding the role of innate immune cells and identifying genes in breast cancer microenvironment. Cancers, 12(8), 2226. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers12082226
  45. Laskin, D. L. (2009). Macrophages and inflammatory mediators in chemical toxicity: a battle of forces. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 22(8), 1376–1385. https://doi.org/10.1021/tx900086v
  46. Liu, Y. C., Zou, X. B., Chai, Y. F., & Yao, Y. M. (2014). Macrophage polarization in inflammatory diseases. International Journal of Biological Sciences, 10(5), 520–529. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.8879
  47. Jain, N. K., Mishra, V., & Mehra, N. K. (2013). Targeted drug delivery to macrophages. Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery, 10(3), 353–367. https://doi.org/10.1517/17425247.2013.751370
  48. Xie, Z., Su, Y., Kim, G. B., et al. (2017). Immune cell‑mediated biodegradable theranostic nanoparticles for melanoma targeting and drug delivery. Small, 13(10), 1603121. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201603121
  49. Germic, N., Frangez, Z., Yousefi, S., & Simon, H. U. (2019). Regulation of the innate immune system by autophagy: monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and antigen presentation. Cell Death & Differentiation, 26(4), 715–727. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41418-019-0297-6
  50. Ammarah, U., Pereira-Nunes, A., Delfini, M., & Mazzone, M. (2024). From monocyte‑derived macrophages to resident macrophages—how metabolism leads their way in cancer. Molecular Oncology, 18(7), 1739–1758. https://doi.org/10.1002/1878-0261.13618
  51. Toledo, B., Zhu Chen, L., Paniagua‑Sancho, M., Marchal, J. A., Perán, M., & Giovannetti, E. (2024). Deciphering the performance of macrophages in tumour microenvironment: a call for precision immunotherapy. Journal of Hematology & Oncology, 17(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13045-024-01559-0
  52. Kulle, A., Thanabalasuriar, A., Cohen, T. S., & Szydlowska, M. (2022). Resident macrophages of the lung and liver: the guardians of our tissues. Frontiers in Immunology, 13, 1029085. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.1029085

Related resources

Application Notes

arrow-right Isolation of Tumor Associated Macrophages (TAM) from Fresh Tumor Tissue arrow-right Differentiation of M1- or M2-Macrophages from PBMC/Monocytes arrow-right Standardized culture of assay-ready and fully functional human primary macrophages arrow-right Monocyte-derived macrophages: Customized in vitro large-scale differentiation from human PBMC arrow-right Holotomography-monitored phagocytosis assay of M1 macrophages

Posters

arrow-right Macrophage polarization: plasticity in health and disease

Brochures

arrow-right Macrophage cell culture arrow-right Human macrophage culture overview

Videos

arrow-right Macrophages Subtypes: Polarization, Activation and Plasticity